SS-31

SS-31 is a mitochondria-targeting tetrapeptide that binds cardiolipin to stabilize mitochondrial membranes, reduce oxidative stress, and enhance ATP synthesis. It supports neuro-, cardio-, and nephro-protection.

- Boost mitochondrial performance

- Support neurological and cardiovascular recovery

Mechanism of Action

How this peptide works in the body

Cardiolipin Binding:

SS-31 selectively binds to cardiolipin, a phospholipid unique to the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), stabilizing mitochondrial cristae and preventing cytochrome c dissociation. This preserves mitochondrial integrity and inhibits apoptotic cascade activation, reducing cell death in energy-demanding tissues.

Electron Transport Chain Optimization:

By stabilizing cardiolipin, SS-31 enhances electron flow through complex I and complex III of the electron transport chain (ETC), reducing electron leakage and minimizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. This improves proton gradient efficiency, leading to enhanced ATP synthesis via ATP synthase, optimizing cellular energy availability.

Oxidative Stress Reduction:

SS-31 directly scavenges superoxide (O₂⁻) and hydroxyl radicals (OH•), preventing lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage. Additionally, it upregulates endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms by activating superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), reducing oxidative stress at the mitochondrial level.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects:

SS-31 suppresses nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). This dampens chronic inflammation, protecting against mitochondrial dysfunction-driven inflammatory diseases like neurodegeneration and cardiovascular disorders.

Mitochondrial Biogenesis:

SS-31 promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) and nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF1). This upregulates mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), stimulating mitochondrial DNA replication and promoting the formation of new, functionally efficient mitochondria.